Amaranth (Amaranthus cruentus) was a primary food for Central American Indians before Columbus arrived in the New World. The energy content of amaranth is similar to that of other cereal grains, but the protein content is twice as high. The grain has a protein content of 14-18%. It is high in lysine and well balanced in other amino acids.

Raw grain amaranth contains heat labile, growth depressing anti-nutrients for chickens, although Japanese quail are not effected . Amaranth can be used as a feed ingredient for broilers if heat treatment is applied to the grain prior to feeding. The heat treatment is necessary to partially or completely destroy the anti-nutritive factors present. Research has shown that extruded grain amaranth can be fed to broiler chicks without adversely affecting body weight, feed utilization, or carcass yields. An upper limit of inclusion 40% is recommended. Amaranth grain also has a market in the health food industry where it is an alternative for those with allergies to wheat. If it is to be used in poultry feeds it will have to compete with this market.

Research has shown that heat processed amaranth grain can fully replace meat-and-bone meal in broiler diets. Addition research has shown that steam pelleting of broiler diets containing amaranth increased feed intake and improved growth, but there was also higher fat deposition. Adding molasses to the diet did not improve chicken performance. Utilization of amaranth increases as the broilers get older indicating that amaranth should be included in only finisher diets.

With regards to laying hens, research has shown that extruded amaranth was incorporated into corn-soybean meal layer rations. Layers fed diets containing amaranth required significantly less feed to produce a dozen eggs or a gram of egg than those fed the control diet. No differences were observed for shell strength, shell thickness, number or severity of blood spots, or Haugh units (measure of egg quality). Extruded grain amaranth may be effectively used in layer rations without detrimentally altering production characteristics but pigment needs to be added to the feed to improve yolk color.

In addition to feeding the grain, the amaranth leaf is also a potential feed ingredient .Amaranth is known by other names around the world - pigweed, callaloo and mchicha (which means 'a vegetable for all' in Swahili). Amaranth leaves are nutritionally similar to beets, Swiss chard and spinach, but contain three times more calcium and three times more niacin (vitamin B3) than spinach leaves.

Sun-dried amaranth leaf meal is high in crude protein (~23%), including methionine, and dietary energy. Amaranth leaf meal can only be included in broiler diets up to 5% unless the diets are supplement with an enzyme cocktail that provides cellulase, glucanase and xylanase activity (Example: Roxazyme G2).

Barley is commonly used in Canada and Europe as the major energy source in poultry diets but is considered a low-energy grain. The lower energy value of barley is due to low starch content, a high fiber content, and the presence of beta-glucans. Beta-glucans cause low digestibility and sticky droppings.  The sticky droppings create bad litter, which can cause hock problems and damage the breast of broilers.  With layers, the sticky droppings adhere to the cage and mark eggs decreasing their quality and marketability.  Barley is considered inferior to either corn or wheat as an ingredient in poultry diets. Barley contains twice as many fatty acids as wheat, which accounts for its 10% higher caloric content. Barley contains over 17% fiber, which is 40% more than that wheat.

Poultry fed diets based on barley have been shown to be more susceptible to necrotic enteritis than those on corn-based diets. The development of commercially available enzyme preparations has increased the use of barley in poultry feeds, but the use of feed enzymes is restricted in certified organic poultry production.

Sticky droppings: A feed-related poultry problem (Washington State University)

Barley-grain - Feedipedia

The Saskatchewan encyclopedia - barley

Buckwheat (Fagopyrum sagittatum) has long been used as a livestock and poultry feed, but, unfortunately, little data is available on its use. The literature suggests that buckwheat has reasonable feed value, roughly comparable to oats. The grain contains 11-13% crude protein and is the best source of lysine among the feed grains, and is the only one not lysine deficient. The proteins of buckwheat are of high biological value proteins with essential amino acids making up over one third of the total protein. 

Buckwheat grain is considered to have lower feed value than grain of cereal crops because of its relatively high fiber content and low digestible nutrients. Buckwheat also contains fagopyrin, a compound which causes photosensitization of light-skinned animals. High levels of buckwheat have resulted in an increased incidence of sun-burned broiler chickens arriving at the processing plant.

Alternative field crops manual - Buckwheat (University of Wisconsin)

Buckwheat (Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada)

Buckwheat - Production and Management (Manitoba Agriculture, Food and Rural Initiatives, Canada)

Buckwheat cover crop handbook (Ontario Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Rural Affairs)

In the United States corn is the main grain used in poultry feeds. It is highly digestible and a good source of dietary energy. In parts of Canada and Europe wheat and barley are more commonly used. In most research related to feeding different energy sources to poultry, corn is typically used as the standard to which the performance is compared.

Oat grains are composed of about 20% hulls, resulting in a high fiber/low energy grain. The hull-less or naked oat, however, has a feeding value similar to that of corn. The energy content of naked oats is 17% and the energy content is similar to that of wheat. Oat lipids have a high proportion of palmitic acid leading to a “harder” fat being deposited in the chicken carcass.

Oats (both regular and naked) contain beta-glucans, which can cause digestive problems and sticky litter when fed to poultry. Researchers have reported that up to 40% of naked oats could be included in broiler diets with no adverse effect on growth, feed efficiency, shrinkage, dressing percentage or bone strength.

At 50% inclusion in broiler diets, naked oats have been shown to have a negative effect on some sensory quality parameters (tenderness, juiciness and to some extent stringiness and rubberiness). This was not found at the 25% inclusion level. Some research reports indicate that up to 66% of naked oats can be included in layer diets with no adverse effects on egg yolk, feed intake, egg weight, or egg production. 

Oat Groats

Oat groats are made by dehulling oats and removing all fines and broken kernels.

The Encyclopedia of Saskatchewan - Oats (Canada)

Millet is a collective term for seeds from a variety of crops including pearl millet, foxtail millet, and proso millet. Pearl millet is the most widely grown of the millets. It was first grown in Africa but is now raised in many different parts of the world.

he protein content of pearl millet varies depending on cultivation conditions, but is typically higher than in corn. The essential amino acid profile of pearl millet is also more balanced than corn. In addition, pearl millet has a higher oil content than the other common cereal grains and is a better source of linolenic acid. In research broilers fed diets containing up to 50% pearl millet performed as well, or better, than broilers fed typical corn-soybean meal diets.

Pearl millet is a relatively small grain making grinding it difficult. As a result, pearl millet is typically rolled rather than ground. Unfortunately, the necessary equipment is not available in some feed milling plants. This is often the case with smaller feed mills. Research has shown that up to 10% whole pearl millet seeds can be incorporated into pelleted broiler diets without adversely affecting broiler performance.

Quinoa (pronounced Keen-wah) is a cereal grain that originated in the highlands of South America. It is a unique cereal grain because it is resistant to drought as well as to light frost. It is high in protein (12.2% crude protein) and specifically the amino acids lysine (6.7 % of CP) and methionine (2.9 % of CP). The quality of the protein portion is similar to that of casein. Unfortunately, quinoa also contains a number of anti-nutritional substances, such as saponins, phytic acid, tannins and trypsin inhibitors, which can have a negative effect on performance and survival of monogastric animals when it is used as the primary dietary energy source. Differences in levels of anti-nutritional factors may be found in different types of quinoa that have been grown under different conditions.  

Heat-treated quinoa can be included in poultry diets with minimal disruptions to poultry performance.

Rye is not recommended for growing chickens (i.e., broilers and pullets) and turkeys. Including high levels of rye in poultry diets typically causes problems for graining chicks. The problem is the water-soluble, highly viscous non-starch polysaccharides referred to as pentosans or arabinoxylans. They are present in low amounts in the rye grain (about 3.5%) and interfere with the digestion of all nutrients in the diet, but especially the fats, fat-soluble vitamins, starch, and protein. Chicks fed diets with rye produce a wet and sticky excreta. There is also a higher moisture level in the litter, increasing the problem of ammonia production.

Rye may be fed to laying hens but should be introduced only after the hens have reached peak egg product ton (about 40 weeks of age). Rye should not be more than 40% of the diet. They may have sticky droppings which can increase the incidence of stained eggs.

There are commercial enzymes available that can counteract the negative effects of the rye.

The Encyclopedia of Saskatchewan - Rye

Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor) is similar in composition to corn but contains the anti-nutritive factor tannin. Tannins (phenolics) inhibit digestive enzyme activity and form complexes with protein that resist digestion.  The maximum amount of sorghum tannin that can be included in broiler diets without adversely affecting growth rate or feed efficiency is unclear. Research suggest that the maximum level for dietary tannins is between 1.3 and 2.5% tannin on a dry matter basis.

Sorghum is limiting in several amino acids, including lysine, methionine and glycine. There is very little data available on the effect of sorghum inclusion on meat yield and quality, but one study has shown a significant reduction in both eviscerated carcass weight and dressing out percentage of broilers reared on sorghum.

Triticale is a synthetic hybrid of wheat and rye. It has a higher protein than corn so when used can reduce the amount of soybean meal needed in poultry diets.

Wheat is used in many countries, especially in Canada and Europe, as the major energy source in poultry diets. Wheat varieties are classified as red or white depending on the seed coat color, hard or soft depending on the kernel texture, and winter or spring depending on the time of planting. In terms of feeding value, the main classification of interest is kernel texture since this most strongly affects the nutrient composition.

Hard wheat varieties generally have a higher lysine content than soft varieties. The hardness of these kinds of wheat is due to the strong binding between the starch and the protein components. Within the hard wheat, protein levels can vary from 10-18% depending on the variety and growing conditions.

Wheat contains water-soluble, highly viscous non-starch polysaccharides referred to as pentosans or arabinoxylans (about 5-8%), which can cause problems with digesta viscosity. Feed enzymes are available to improve the performance of chickens fed wheat-based diets.

The Encyclopedia of Saskatchewan - Wheat (Canada)

Feeding whole grains to chickens (Maine Organic Farmers & Gardeners Association - MOFGA)

Rendering is a process that converts waste animal tissues into value-added materials.

Blood Meal

Whole blood meal is produced by spray drying at low temperatures the fresh whole blood from animal processing plants. The fresh blood is typically collected in on-site cooling tanks that utilize agitation to prevent coagulation of the fresh blood. The whole blood is then centrifuged to remove foreign material. Whole blood meal contains about 80% crude protein, with 1% methionine (2.4% methionine + cystine).

Feather Meal

Hydrolyzed poultry feathers or feather meal is produced by hydrolyzing clean, undecomposed feathers from slaughtered poultry. Hydrolysis is accomplished with steam and pressure which break the keratinous bond and increases the digestibility of the protein in the feathers. The quality of feather meal is affected by the length of time that it is hydrolyzed. The protein content of feather meal is typical 85%. If the content is 75% crude protein or less, the hydrolyzation was incomplete.

Fishmeal

Fishmeal is a by-product of the fishing industry. It can be made from any type of fish, though in the United States menhaden is the most common. Fishmeal is an excellent, high-quality protein that can be used in poultry diets. Typically low levels are used to prevent off-flavors in the eggs or meat produced.

Meat & Bone Meal

Meat meal is a by-product of the beef and pork slaughterhouse. We bones are included it becomes meat and bone meal.

Poultry By-Product Meal

Poultry by-product meal is similar to meat and bone meal but is a by-product of the chicken and turkey meat industries rather than beef and pork.

Canola is rapeseed developed in Canada that is low in the two main antinutritional factors that have limited rapeseed's use in poultry diets - erucic acid and glucosinolate. Canola meal produced from low erucic acid, low glucosinolate cultivars of canola seed is a suitable replacement for soybean meal in poultry diets. The presence of sinapine, however, limits its use with brown egg layers, especially those breeds developed with Rhode Island Reds. The breakdown of sinapine in such chickens results in the production of a compound that gives eggs a fishy taste.

The Encyclopedia of Saskatchewan - Canola (Canada)

Field peas (Pisum sativum) contain 20-29% crude protein and are a potential protein-energy source for poultry diets. Research has reported that replacing a large portion of the soybean meal with field peas can result in reduced performance of growing chickens and laying hens. The presence of alpha-galactosides is proposed as the cause of the poor growth in broiler chickens but the cause of the reduced performance of laying hens is not known. Research suggests that broiler chickens can tolerate up to 20% of field peas in their diets. Up to 40% can be used if the diets are supplemented with the enzyme pectinase and the diets formulated to 15% higher than NRC recommendations.

Peas, as with other legumes, are low in methionine. In addition, some varieties have high levels of tannin. Peas are also high in starch but the starch is less digestible than the starch of any cereal grain.

The Encyclopedia of Saskatchewan - Pulse crops and industry

Flaxseed contains high levels of protein (26%) and oil (41%). It is also an excellent source of omega-3 fatty acids, particularly linolenic acid.  Flax is currently used in poultry feeds to alter the fatty acid composition of eggs (i.e., omega-3 enriched eggs). High levels of flaxseed (>10%) result in a decrease in overall egg acceptability as assessed by aroma and flavor.

Current practice in feed formulation is to stabilize flaxseed with the addition of a-tocopherol/vitamin E antioxidant at the level of 10 mg/100g of feed. The flavor quality of vitamin E/omega-3 fatty acids enriched eggs has been found to be superior to eggs solely containing enhanced omega-3 fatty acids. Flaxseed has also been shown to be successful in the production of omega-3 enriched chicken meat, although the use of full-fat flaxseed resulted in lower live weights and smaller carcasses.

Flax seeds are very small so adding grit to the diet increases it utilization.

The Encyclopedia of Saskatchewan - Flax (Canada)

Agri-Food and Biosciences Institute (AFBI - United Kingdom) studies lupins in poultry diets

Lupins can contain up to 44% crude protein. Previous research has shown they can be included in poultry diets with no adverse effects on performance provided the diets are supplemented with expensive synthetic amino acids. There is a lack of information on the use of low levels of lupins in poultry diets as a direct substitution for soybean meal, without additional amino acid supplementation.

Conclusions: Lupin inclusion reduced feed intake and growth rate in poultry, and there is limited potential for lupins to be used as an alternative protein source.

In the United States the major source of protein in poultry diets is soybean meal. The price and availability of organic soybean meal has resulted in producers looking for alternative protein sources for their diets.

Roasted Whole Soybeans

There has been an increased interest in the use of whole soybean meals, especially in organic poultry diets. Farmers can grower soybeans but can not get them mechanically extracted (only approved method for organic soybean meal production since the more commonly used solvent extraction method is not permitted). When whole soybeans are used they must be roasted to de-activated the trpysin-inhibitors they contain. This anti-nutritional factors is typically deactivated by the temperatures involved in oil extraction and the production of soybean meal.

Research has shown that it is possible to include 15% roasted soybeans in starter turkey diets or replace 100% of the soybean meal with roasted soybeans in grower and finisher diets for female turkeys with no adverse affects on growth performance or carcass composition.

Soybean Info Center

Sunflower seeds are used primarily for oil production. The meal remaining after oil extraction is a potential feed ingredient for inclusion in poultry diets. Sunflower meal has a relatively high protein content (17-21%) but is low in energy and deficient in lysine, limiting its use. The oil can be removed from the seeds by either a solvent extraction method or by using mechanical pressure. Solvent extracted sunflower seed meal cannot be used in certified organic feeds. The oil must be removed with mechanical extraction.

It is also possible to include whole sunflower seeds in poultry diets. Research has shown that whole sunflower seeds can be included at up to 30% of layer diets with no adverse affects on hen performance. Hens fed diets containing sunflower seeds, however, give eggs with a significantly reduced color score (i.e., they look pale) and a significant rise in yolk cholesterol content.

When the seeds are ground, they can be included in broiler diets up to 50%.

Vitamins are typically divided into two groups - the fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, and K) and the water-soluble vitamins (mainly the B-vitamins).

Fat-Soluble Vitamins

Because these vitamins are fat-soluble, fat must be present in the diet in order for the them to be absorbed by the bird.

Vitamin A

Vitamin A is required for the health of the membranes of the digestive, urinary, reproductive and respiratory systems. A vitamin A deficiency can result when the level in the diet is inadequate or the vitamin added to the diet is oxidized by rancid fat in the diet. Additionally, neomycin, a common antibiotic, decreases the absorption of vitamin A. Vitamin A is a fat-soluble vitamin and an inadequate level of fat in the diet could also limit its absorption, even if in the diet at adequate levels.

Symptoms of a vitamin A deficiency include:

• Cheese-like, but odorless, discharge from one or more eye;
• Extremely thin birds (i.e., emaciation);
• Weak and/or incoordinate birds;
• Ruffled feathers;
• Eyelids stuck together (referred to as sicca);
• Water discharge from the throat (referred to as roup), nostrils or eyes in young birds; and
• Egg production and hatchability decrease in adults

Vitamin D

A vitamin D deficiency in poultry results for an inadequate level of vitamin D3 in the diet. Vitamin D3 is needed for proper calcium and phosphorus metabolism and thus the formation of a normal skeleton, beak and claws, and egg shells. Rickets occurs in young birds while cage layer fatigue (osteomalacia) occurs in mature females. It can be mistaken for other causes of deforming leg weakness in poultry.

Vitamin E

A vitamin E deficiency results in a condition known as 'crazy chick disease' or encephalomalacia (softening of the brain). In chicks it usually occurs between 15-30 days of age. Vitamin E is required for reproduction as well as the normal integrity of the central nervous and muscular systems. Vitamin E is also an effective antioxidant and is an important protector of essential fatty acids (e.g. linolenic acid), vitamin A, and vitamin D3.

A vitamin E deficiency is typically caused by an inadequate level of vitamin E in the diet. In addition, vitamin E is readily destroyed by heat (a term referred to as heat labile). A deficiency of selenium will also result in a deficiency of vitamin E. Selenium levels are low in some areas of the country resulting in lower levels in cereal grains.

Symptoms of a vitamin E deficiency include:

• Incoordination
• Tremors
• Rapid contractions and relaxation of the legs resulting in what is known as 'crazy chick disease'
• Testicular degeneration in adult males resulting to decreased fertility
• Increased embryonic mortality

A vitamin E deficiency resembles Avian Encephalomyletis (AE), Newcastle Disease (AE), and a vitamin B1 deficiency.

Vitamin K

Vitamin K is required for the production of prothrombin which is essential in blood clotting. So a deficiency of vitamin K results in an increase in hemorrhaging. It can cause increased embryonic mortality, with the dead embryos having hemorrhaging conditions.

A vitamin K deficiency can be caused by a deficiency of vitamin K in the diet. High levels of sulfaquinoxaline, a medication for prevention or treating coccidiosis in chickens and turkeys.

Water-Soluble Vitamins

Vitamin B1 (Thiamin)

Vitamin B1 deficiencies result from an inadequate level in the diet. Other causes of a deficiency include excess Amprol (used to treat or control coccidiosis) in the diet; moldy feed; or by rancid fat oxidation. A deficiency typically takes three weeks to develop.

Vitamin B1 is needed for formation of a coenzyme involved in the function of the nervous system. A vitamin B1 deficiency resembles Avian Encephalomacia (AE), vitamin E deficiency and Newcastle disease.

Symptoms of a vitamin B1 deficiency in young birds include:

• Nervousness
• Ruffled feathers
• Leg weakness
• Unsteady gait
• Paralysis (convulsions with head retraction) called polyneuritis
• Star-gazing (head retracted due to paralysis of the anterior muscles of the neck)

Symptoms of a vitamin B1 deficiency in adults include:

• Blue comb
• Decrease in respiration rate
• Lowered body temperature

Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin)

Vitamin B2 is caused by a deficiency of vitamin B2 in the diet. Most grains are deficient in vitamin B2 so it is typically added to the diet in a vitamin/mineral premix.

Vitamin B2 is a cofactor in many enzyme systems. Most are associated in oxidation-reduction reactions that are involved in respiration.

A vitamin B2 deficiency can be mistaken for Marek's disease since both have enlarged peripheral nerves.

Symptoms of a vitamin B2 deficiency include:

• Curled toes
• Poor growth
• Weak and emaciation in young birds
• Decrease in size of leg muscles (i.e., atrophy)
• Skin is dry and harsh
• Poor hatchability and egg production in adults
• Dead embryos with 'clubbed' down feathers.
• Turkeys have severe dermatitis (i.e., inflammation of the skin) in the feet and shanks as well as incrustations on the corners on the mouth.

A variety of minerals are needed and they are classified as macro- or micro-minerals. The macro-minerals, such as calcium and phosphorus are typically added as separate ingredients (Limestone, dicalcium phosphate, etc.). The micro-minerals, such as iron, magnesium, potassium, etc., are typically added in a micro-mineral premix.

A variety of different feed additives are commonly used in poultry diets, or can be used when the need arises.

Antioxidants

Fat is often added to poultry diets to increase the energy content, this is especially the case in high density broiler diets. In addition, if fish meal is used, it is high in fat. To help keep feed from going bad, which is common in high fat products, antioxidants are commonly added to the diet. Compounds with antioxidant properties include ethoxyquin, butylhydroxytoluene (BHT), butylhydroxyanisole (BHA), vitamin C, and vitamin E.

Free-flowing agents

It is important that the feed flow easily so that it does not cake in the feeders. Free-flowing agents are substances added to the diet to make sure the feeds do not pack down. Free-flowing agents typically have fine particulate structures while not reacting to the other ingredients in the feed. A common free-flowing agent is hydrated sodium aluminosilicate.

Pelleting additives

Pelleting of feeds has been shown to improve feed efficiency for some poultry species. Most broiler feeds are pelleted. It is important to make sure that the feed ingredients can be packed together in bite-sized pellets without a lot of fines. A variety of pelleting additives are available.

Feeding enzymes

Many of feed ingredients available for use in poultry diets have anti-nutritional factors which limit their use. Feed enzymes have been developed that break down these anti-nutritional factors increasing the potential of many 'alternative grains'. The use of feed enzymes is quite common in Europe where wheat and barley are often used instead of corn.

Mold inhibitors or mycotoxin binders

Cereals are subject to mold growth, which can happen in the field, during post-harvest handling, storage and processing. Even if the mold is removed, the mycotoxins they produce will remain and can be very toxic to poultry. Many feeds contain a mold inhibitor or a mycotoxin binder to prevent the mycotoxins from being absorbed trough the gut and into the blood stream. Common mycotoxin binders are Mycosorb, Mycofix, ProSid, Mycoad—which appears on the Organic Materials Review Institute (OMRI) list—and Toxisorb.

Coccidiostats

Coccidiosis is a problem in many species of poultry raised on the floor. The protozoa that cause coccidiosis are found everywhere. A low level of coccidia in the digestive tract is not a problem, but high levels can result in poor feed efficiency, poor health and ultimately death. Coccidiostats are sometimes added to feed to keep the coccidia at low levels, especially early in bird growth, to allow them to develop resistance. They do not treat the condition, but help in preventing it. Common coccidostats include amprolium (Aprol, Corid), decoquinate (Deccox),  diclazuril (Clinacox), halofuginone (Stenorol), lasalocid sodium (Avatec, Bovatec), monensin (Coban), robenidine (Robenz), and salinomycin (Bio-Cox, Sacox).

Antibiotics

The digestive tract of all animals contain a diverse population of microbes. Some are classified as 'good' and are necessary for maintaining gut health. There are also 'bad' bacteria which, when present at high levels can adversely affect gut health, and can ultimately result in damage to the intestines. This is referred to as necrotic enteritis.. Low-level, or sub-therapeutic levels, of antibiotics can be added to feed to keep the 'bad' bacteria in check. Bacitracin is a commonly added antibiotic.

If a disease situation it may be necessary to add therapeutic levels of antibiotics to the feed, although for most treatments the antibiotics are added in the feed. A sick bird with typically drink but may not eat. By adding the antibiotics in the water you assure that the birds are being sufficiently treated.

Antibiotic alternatives

The desire to reduce use of antibiotics in animal production, alternatives have been developed. The best way to keep the 'good' bacteria at higher levels than the 'bad' is to add the nutrients which promote the growth of the good. These are referred to as probiotics, since they encourage the growth of some bacteria. Providing nutrients, such as mannan oligosaccharides (MOS), that promote good bacteria will help to maintain gut health. There are a number of MOS products available, including Bio-MOS, Celmanax, Nupro, and SAF-Mannan.